Lecture 05-1: Table Design and Constraints

DATA 503: Fundamentals of Data Engineering

Lucas P. Cordova, Ph.D.

lpcordova@willamette.edu

Willamette University

February 9, 2026

Lecture Outline

• Top-level View 🚁
• Setting the Stage with a Running Example: A Music Catalog 🎧
• Building the Music Catalog Schema 🏗️
• Next Up! 🚀
• References 📚

Top-level View 🚁

From Design to Implementation

You have learned to import raw data into a single table and design a normalized schema. Now we build the tables that bring that design to life. Think of it as the difference between an architect’s blueprint and actually pouring the concrete.

What Comes Next

Today we learn the DDL (Data Definition Language) skills to implement your normalized designs:

After today, the next step is migrating data from your staging table into the new structure using INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.

Setting the Stage with a Running Example: A Music Catalog 🎧

The Scenario

You work for a streaming service that just acquired a catalog of albums from a defunct record distributor. The data arrived as a single CSV file spanning six decades of music, from Fleetwood Mac to Beyonce. Your job is to normalize it and build proper tables.

Here is a sample of what you received:

catalog_id	artist_name	album_title	release_year	genre	label	duration_min	decade
CAT-1001	Fleetwood Mac	Rumours	1977	Rock	Warner Bros	39.4	1970s
CAT-1002	Fleetwood Mac	Tango in the Night	1987	Rock	Warner Bros	45.1	1980s
CAT-1003	The Beatles	Abbey Road	1969	Rock	Apple	47.4	1960s
CAT-1004	The Beatles	Abbey Road	1969	Rock	Apple	47.4	1960s
CAT-1005	Led Zepplin	Led Zeppelin IV	1971	Rock	Atlantic	42.5	1970
CAT-1006	Beyonce	Lemonade	2016	R&B	Columbia	45.7	2010s
CAT-1007	Beyonce	Renaissance	2022	Pop	Columbia	42.1	20s
CAT-1008	Radiohead	OK Computer	1997	Alternative	Parlophone	53.4	1990s
CAT-1009	the rolling stones	Sticky Fingers	1971	Rock	Rolling Stones	46.3	1970s
CAT-1010	Whitney houston	The Bodyguard	1992	Pop	Arista	56.8	1990s
CAT-1011	OutKast	Stankonia	2000	Hip-Hop	LaFace	72.9	2000s
CAT-1012	Outkast	Aquemini	1998	Hip-Hop	LaFace	72.6	1990s

If you are already counting problems in that table, good. We will deal with them next time. Today we focus on building the target schema.

The Staging Table

First, we import the CSV into a flat staging table:

CREATE TABLE music_catalog (
    catalog_id varchar(20) CONSTRAINT catalog_key PRIMARY KEY,
    artist_name varchar(200),
    album_title varchar(200),
    release_year smallint,
    genre varchar(50),
    label varchar(100),
    duration_min numeric(5,1),
    decade varchar(10)
);

COPY music_catalog
FROM '/path/to/album_catalog.csv'
WITH (FORMAT CSV, HEADER, DELIMITER ',');

This staging table holds raw, denormalized data. It is a holding pen, not a home.

Identifying Entities

The staging table mixes artist data with album data in every row. Normalization separates them into distinct tables with relationships. Looking at the data, we can identify distinct entities:

The Normalized Target

Our goal is three tables:

• artists – one row per unique artist
• albums – one row per unique album, linked to an artist
• tracks – one row per track, linked to an album

The staging table gets us to artists and albums. Track data would come from a separate source, but we will build the table structure anyway. In the real world, schemas are built for the data you expect, not just the data you have.

Now let us learn the DDL skills to build these tables properly.

Naming Conventions

Why Naming Matters

Good naming conventions make your database self-documenting. A well-named schema tells you what it contains without reading a single comment.

Bad naming leads to:

• Confusion when writing queries
• Bugs from misremembering column names
• Onboarding headaches for new team members
• Passive-aggressive comments in code reviews

PostgreSQL Naming Rules

PostgreSQL has specific rules for identifiers (table and column names):

• Can contain letters, digits, and underscores
• Must begin with a letter or underscore
• Are case-insensitive by default (folded to lowercase)
• Maximum length of 63 characters

-- These all refer to the SAME table:
CREATE TABLE artists (...);
CREATE TABLE Artists (...);  -- Error: already exists!
CREATE TABLE ARTISTS (...);  -- Error: already exists!

PostgreSQL treats your shouting the same as your whispering.

The Case Sensitivity Trap

PostgreSQL folds unquoted identifiers to lowercase. If you use double quotes, the name becomes case-sensitive:

CREATE TABLE "Artists" (...);  -- Creates "Artists" (capital A)
SELECT * FROM artists;          -- Looks for "artists" (lowercase)
SELECT * FROM "Artists";        -- Finds "Artists" (capital A)

Warning

Avoid double-quoted identifiers. They create maintenance headaches because every query must use the exact casing with quotes. You will curse your past self at 2 AM.

Best Practices for Naming

Convention	Example	Avoid
Use snake_case	release_year	releaseYear, ReleaseYear
Be descriptive	artist_name	art_nm
Use plurals for tables	artists, albums	artist, album
Include context	duration_min	data_column_7
Prefix dates	report_2026_01_15	15_01_2026_report

Naming: Tables vs Columns

• Tables
• Columns
• Junction Tables

Tables represent collections of entities. Use plural nouns:

• artists (not artist)
• albums (not album)
• tracks (not track)

Columns represent attributes. Use singular, descriptive names:

• artist_name (not artist_names)
• release_year (not years_released)
• duration_min (not dur)

For many-to-many relationships, combine both table names:

• artist_genres
• album_tracks
• playlist_songs

Primary Keys

Recap: What Is a Primary Key?

A primary key uniquely identifies each row in a table. It provides:

• Uniqueness: No two rows share the same key value
• Non-nullability: The key value cannot be NULL
• Identity: A reliable way to reference a specific row

Every table in a well-designed database should have a primary key.

Two Approaches to Primary Keys

Natural Keys

A natural key uses data that already exists and naturally identifies the entity.

CREATE TABLE natural_key_example (
    license_id varchar(10) CONSTRAINT license_key PRIMARY KEY,
    first_name varchar(50),
    last_name varchar(50)
);

Here license_id is a real-world identifier. Each person has exactly one, and it is unique. In theory. In practice, natural keys have a habit of being less unique than you were promised.

Natural Keys: Testing Uniqueness

Let us see what happens when we violate the primary key:

INSERT INTO natural_key_example (license_id, first_name, last_name)
VALUES ('T229901', 'Lynn', 'Malero');

INSERT INTO natural_key_example (license_id, first_name, last_name)
VALUES ('T229901', 'Sam', 'Tracy');

The second INSERT fails:

ERROR: duplicate key value violates unique constraint "license_key"
DETAIL: Key (license_id)=(T229901) already exists.

The database enforces uniqueness automatically. It is polite about it, but firm.

Natural Keys: Music Catalog Example

Could we use a natural key for our albums table? The catalog_id from the staging data is a candidate:

CREATE TABLE albums (
    catalog_id varchar(20) CONSTRAINT album_key PRIMARY KEY,
    album_title varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    release_year smallint,
    genre varchar(50)
);

This works if every album has a unique catalog code. But what if the same album is reissued with a new code? Or acquired from a different distributor with a different code? Natural keys work until the real world gets creative.

Composite Natural Keys

Sometimes no single column is unique, but a combination is:

CREATE TABLE natural_key_composite_example (
    student_id varchar(10),
    school_day date,
    present boolean,
    CONSTRAINT student_key PRIMARY KEY (student_id, school_day)
);

A student can only have one attendance record per day. Neither student_id nor school_day is unique alone, but together they form a unique identifier.

Composite Keys: Testing Uniqueness

INSERT INTO natural_key_composite_example (student_id, school_day, present)
VALUES(775, '1/22/2017', 'Y');

INSERT INTO natural_key_composite_example (student_id, school_day, present)
VALUES(775, '1/23/2017', 'Y');  -- OK: different day

INSERT INTO natural_key_composite_example (student_id, school_day, present)
VALUES(775, '1/23/2017', 'N');  -- FAILS: same student + day

ERROR: duplicate key value violates unique constraint "student_key"
DETAIL: Key (student_id, school_day)=(775, 2017-01-23) already exists.

Surrogate Keys

A surrogate key is a system-generated value with no real-world meaning:

CREATE TABLE artists (
    artist_id bigserial,
    artist_name varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    CONSTRAINT artist_key PRIMARY KEY (artist_id)
);

PostgreSQL’s serial types auto-generate incrementing integers:

Type	Range
smallserial	1 to 32,767
serial	1 to 2,147,483,647
bigserial	1 to 9.2 quintillion

Surrogate Keys: Auto-Increment in Action

INSERT INTO artists (artist_name)
VALUES ('Fleetwood Mac'),
       ('The Beatles'),
       ('Beyonce');

SELECT * FROM artists;

 artist_id |  artist_name
-----------+---------------
         1 | Fleetwood Mac
         2 | The Beatles
         3 | Beyonce

Notice we never specified artist_id. PostgreSQL generated it automatically. One less thing to argue about in a design meeting.

Natural vs Surrogate: When to Use Which

Factor	Natural Key	Surrogate Key
Meaning	Has real-world meaning	Meaningless identifier
Stability	Can change (email, name)	Never changes
Size	Varies (could be long)	Fixed, compact
Performance	Depends on data type	Fast (integer)
Universality	Not always available	Always available

Tip

Practical guidance: Use surrogate keys (serial/bigserial) as primary keys for most tables. If a natural key exists and is truly stable (ISBN, SSN), consider it. When in doubt, surrogate wins. Nobody has ever been fired for using a serial primary key.

Two Syntax Styles for PRIMARY KEY

You can declare a primary key inline or as a table constraint:

• Inline (Column Level)
• Table Level

CREATE TABLE artists (
    artist_id bigserial CONSTRAINT artist_key PRIMARY KEY,
    artist_name varchar(200) NOT NULL
);

Best for single-column keys.

CREATE TABLE artists (
    artist_id bigserial,
    artist_name varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    CONSTRAINT artist_key PRIMARY KEY (artist_id)
);

Required for composite keys. Also works for single-column keys.

Foreign Keys

Connecting Tables with Foreign Keys

A foreign key is a column in one table that references the primary key of another table. It enforces referential integrity: you cannot reference a row that does not exist.

Creating Foreign Key Relationships

CREATE TABLE artists (
    artist_id bigserial,
    artist_name varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    CONSTRAINT artist_key PRIMARY KEY (artist_id)
);

CREATE TABLE albums (
    album_id bigserial,
    album_title varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    release_year smallint,
    artist_id bigint REFERENCES artists (artist_id),
    CONSTRAINT album_key PRIMARY KEY (album_id)
);

The REFERENCES keyword creates the foreign key relationship. It is essentially a contract: “I promise this value exists over there, and I would like the database to hold me to it.”

Foreign Keys: Enforcing Referential Integrity

-- This works: artist_id 1 exists
INSERT INTO artists (artist_name) VALUES ('Fleetwood Mac');

INSERT INTO albums (album_title, release_year, artist_id)
VALUES ('Rumours', 1977, 1);

-- This FAILS: artist_id 999 does not exist
INSERT INTO albums (album_title, release_year, artist_id)
VALUES ('Phantom Album', 2025, 999);

ERROR: insert or update on table "albums" violates foreign key
constraint "albums_artist_id_fkey"
DETAIL: Key (artist_id)=(999) is not present in table "artists".

What Happens When You Delete a Parent Row?

By default, PostgreSQL prevents deleting a row from the parent table if child rows reference it. This protects data integrity but can be inconvenient.

ON DELETE CASCADE tells PostgreSQL to automatically delete child rows when the parent is deleted:

CREATE TABLE tracks (
    track_id bigserial,
    track_title varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    album_id bigint REFERENCES albums (album_id)
        ON DELETE CASCADE,
    CONSTRAINT track_key PRIMARY KEY (track_id)
);

Delete an album, and all its tracks vanish with it. This is appropriate when child rows have no meaning without the parent.

ON DELETE Options

Option	Behavior
RESTRICT (default)	Prevent deletion if children exist
CASCADE	Delete children automatically
SET NULL	Set foreign key to NULL in children
SET DEFAULT	Set foreign key to default value in children

Warning

Use CASCADE carefully. Deleting one artist could cascade through albums and tracks, removing far more data than intended. CASCADE is the database equivalent of pulling a loose thread on a sweater.

Foreign Key Design Patterns

One-to-Many: An artist has many albums. Put artist_id in the albums table.

Many-to-Many: Artists perform in many genres; genres have many artists. Create artist_genres with FKs to both.

One-to-One: An artist has one biography. Put artist_id in biographies with a UNIQUE constraint.

CHECK Constraints

Validating Data with CHECK

A CHECK constraint ensures that column values meet a logical condition. If the condition evaluates to false, the row is rejected.

CREATE TABLE albums (
    album_id bigserial,
    album_title varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    release_year smallint,
    genre varchar(50),
    duration_min numeric(5,1),
    artist_id bigint REFERENCES artists (artist_id),
    CONSTRAINT album_key PRIMARY KEY (album_id),
    CONSTRAINT check_year_range
        CHECK (release_year BETWEEN 1900 AND 2100),
    CONSTRAINT check_duration_positive
        CHECK (duration_min > 0)
);

CHECK: Practical Examples

CHECK constraints can enforce a wide variety of business rules:

-- Genre must be from a known list
CONSTRAINT check_genre
    CHECK (genre IN ('Rock', 'Pop', 'Hip-Hop', 'R&B',
           'Country', 'Electronic', 'Alternative', 'Jazz'))

-- Release year must be reasonable
CONSTRAINT check_year_range
    CHECK (release_year BETWEEN 1900 AND 2100)

-- Track number must be positive
CONSTRAINT check_track_positive
    CHECK (track_number > 0)

-- Duration must be within reason
CONSTRAINT check_duration
    CHECK (duration_sec BETWEEN 1 AND 7200)

When to Use CHECK Constraints

Scenario	Example
Enumerated values	genre IN ('Rock', 'Pop', 'Jazz')
Numeric ranges	release_year BETWEEN 1900 AND 2100
Comparison between columns	end_date > start_date
Non-negative values	duration_min > 0
String patterns	email LIKE '%@%.%'

Tip

CHECK constraints catch bad data at the database level, regardless of which application inserts it. This is your last line of defense. Applications come and go, but the database remembers.

UNIQUE Constraints

Enforcing Uniqueness Beyond the Primary Key

A UNIQUE constraint ensures no duplicate values exist in a column (or combination of columns), separate from the primary key.

CREATE TABLE artists (
    artist_id bigserial CONSTRAINT artist_key PRIMARY KEY,
    artist_name varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    CONSTRAINT artist_name_unique UNIQUE (artist_name)
);

This prevents inserting two artists with the same name. Whether that is desirable depends on whether you believe there is only one “John Williams” in the music industry. (There are at least two famous ones.)

UNIQUE: Testing the Constraint

INSERT INTO artists (artist_name) VALUES ('Beyonce');
INSERT INTO artists (artist_name) VALUES ('Beyonce');

ERROR: duplicate key value violates unique constraint "artist_name_unique"
DETAIL: Key (artist_name)=(Beyonce) already exists.

Composite UNIQUE Constraints

Sometimes uniqueness requires multiple columns. An album title is not unique by itself (many artists have a self-titled album), but the combination of artist and title should be:

CREATE TABLE albums (
    album_id bigserial CONSTRAINT album_key PRIMARY KEY,
    album_title varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    release_year smallint,
    artist_id bigint REFERENCES artists (artist_id),
    CONSTRAINT album_artist_unique UNIQUE (album_title, artist_id)
);

Now two different artists can both have “Greatest Hits,” but the same artist cannot have two albums with the same title.

UNIQUE vs PRIMARY KEY

Feature	PRIMARY KEY	UNIQUE
Uniqueness	Yes	Yes
Allows NULL	No	Yes (one NULL per column)
Per table	Only one	Multiple allowed
Creates index	Yes	Yes

A table has one primary key but can have many UNIQUE constraints. Use UNIQUE for candidate keys that are not the primary key.

NOT NULL Constraints

Requiring Values with NOT NULL

NOT NULL prevents a column from containing NULL values. This is essential for columns that must always have data:

CREATE TABLE artists (
    artist_id bigserial,
    artist_name varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    CONSTRAINT artist_key PRIMARY KEY (artist_id)
);

Any INSERT that omits artist_name (or sets it to NULL) will fail. An artist without a name is not an artist. It is a mystery.

When to Use NOT NULL

Apply NOT NULL to columns where missing data would be meaningless or harmful:

Always NOT NULL	Often Nullable
artist_name	label (indie releases)
album_title	genre (might be ambiguous)
track_title	duration_min (might be unknown)
Foreign keys (usually)	release_year (might be disputed)
track_number	Notes, descriptions

Tip

Default to NOT NULL and only allow NULLs when there is a legitimate reason for missing data. This catches bugs early. Future you will appreciate the strictness, even if present you finds it annoying.

Modifying Tables with ALTER TABLE

Adding and Removing Constraints

You do not always get the design right on the first try. Nobody does. If you did, you would be suspicious. ALTER TABLE lets you modify constraints after creation:

-- Remove a constraint
ALTER TABLE artists
    DROP CONSTRAINT artist_name_unique;

-- Add a constraint back
ALTER TABLE artists
    ADD CONSTRAINT artist_name_unique UNIQUE (artist_name);

ALTER TABLE: NOT NULL

NOT NULL constraints use a different syntax because they are column properties, not named constraints:

-- Remove NOT NULL
ALTER TABLE albums
    ALTER COLUMN genre DROP NOT NULL;

-- Add NOT NULL back
ALTER TABLE albums
    ALTER COLUMN genre SET NOT NULL;

Common ALTER TABLE Operations

Operation	Syntax
Drop constraint	ALTER TABLE t DROP CONSTRAINT c;
Add constraint	ALTER TABLE t ADD CONSTRAINT c ...;
Drop NOT NULL	ALTER TABLE t ALTER COLUMN col DROP NOT NULL;
Set NOT NULL	ALTER TABLE t ALTER COLUMN col SET NOT NULL;
Add column	ALTER TABLE t ADD COLUMN col type;
Drop column	ALTER TABLE t DROP COLUMN col;
Rename column	ALTER TABLE t RENAME COLUMN old TO new;
Rename table	ALTER TABLE t RENAME TO new_name;

ALTER TABLE in Practice

A common workflow when evolving a database:

-- Scenario: You realize albums need a label column you forgot
ALTER TABLE albums
    ADD COLUMN label varchar(100);

-- And genre should be required after all
ALTER TABLE albums
    ALTER COLUMN genre SET NOT NULL;

Speeding Things Up: Indexes

What Is an Index?

An index is a data structure that speeds up data retrieval at the cost of additional storage and slower writes.

Think of it like the index at the back of a textbook: instead of reading every page to find “normalization,” you look it up in the index and jump directly to the right page. Databases without indexes are just very patient.

Without an Index: Sequential Scan

PostgreSQL reads every single row in the table:

EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM music_catalog
WHERE artist_name = 'Beyonce';

Seq Scan on music_catalog
  (cost=0.00..20730.68 rows=12 width=46)
  (actual time=0.055..289.426 rows=8 loops=1)
  Filter: ((artist_name)::text = 'Beyonce'::text)
  Rows Removed by Filter: 601
Planning time: 0.617 ms
Execution time: 289.838 ms

On a large catalog, scanning every row adds up. Now imagine a thousand users searching simultaneously.

Creating an Index

CREATE INDEX idx_albums_artist ON albums (artist_id);
CREATE INDEX idx_tracks_album ON tracks (album_id);
CREATE INDEX idx_albums_genre ON albums (genre);

These build B-tree indexes (the default) on frequently queried columns.

When to Create Indexes

Create Index When	Skip Index When
Column used in WHERE clauses	Table is small (< 1000 rows)
Column used in JOIN conditions	Column has few distinct values
Column used in ORDER BY	Table has heavy INSERT/UPDATE load
Foreign key columns	You rarely query the column

Tip

PostgreSQL automatically creates indexes on PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE columns. You only need to manually create indexes on other frequently queried columns.

EXPLAIN ANALYZE: Your Performance Detective

EXPLAIN ANALYZE shows you exactly how PostgreSQL executes a query:

EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT * FROM albums
WHERE genre = 'Rock';

Key things to look for:

• Seq Scan: Reading every row (potentially slow)
• Index Scan / Bitmap Index Scan: Using an index (fast)
• Execution time: Total query time in milliseconds
• Rows Removed by Filter: How many rows were checked but not returned

Managing Indexes

-- Create an index
CREATE INDEX idx_name ON table_name (column_name);

-- Create a multi-column index
CREATE INDEX idx_name ON table_name (col1, col2);

-- Remove an index
DROP INDEX idx_name;

Indexes are not free:

• They consume disk space
• They slow down INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE operations
• Too many indexes can hurt overall performance

Balance is key. Index the columns you query most. Indexing everything is like highlighting every word in a textbook. At that point, nothing is highlighted.

Building the Music Catalog Schema 🏗️

Putting It All Together

Now we apply everything we have learned to build the normalized music catalog tables. The staging table holds the raw import. These tables hold the clean, structured data.

The Artists Table

CREATE TABLE artists (
    artist_id bigserial,
    artist_name varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    CONSTRAINT artist_key PRIMARY KEY (artist_id),
    CONSTRAINT artist_name_unique UNIQUE (artist_name)
);

Key decisions:

• Surrogate key (bigserial) because artist names can change or have variations
• artist_name is NOT NULL and UNIQUE (every artist needs a name, and we do not want duplicates after cleaning)

The Albums Table

CREATE TABLE albums (
    album_id bigserial,
    album_title varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    release_year smallint,
    genre varchar(50),
    label varchar(100),
    duration_min numeric(5,1),
    artist_id bigint NOT NULL REFERENCES artists (artist_id),
    CONSTRAINT album_key PRIMARY KEY (album_id),
    CONSTRAINT check_year_range
        CHECK (release_year BETWEEN 1900 AND 2100),
    CONSTRAINT check_duration_positive
        CHECK (duration_min > 0),
    CONSTRAINT album_artist_unique
        UNIQUE (album_title, artist_id)
);

Key decisions:

• artist_id is NOT NULL (every album must have an artist)
• CHECK on year range catches obvious errors
• Composite UNIQUE on title + artist prevents duplicate albums per artist
• genre is nullable (some albums defy classification, and our staging data has NULLs)

The Tracks Table

CREATE TABLE tracks (
    track_id bigserial,
    track_title varchar(200) NOT NULL,
    track_number smallint NOT NULL,
    duration_sec numeric(6,1),
    album_id bigint NOT NULL REFERENCES albums (album_id),
    CONSTRAINT track_key PRIMARY KEY (track_id),
    CONSTRAINT check_track_number
        CHECK (track_number > 0),
    CONSTRAINT check_track_duration
        CHECK (duration_sec > 0),
    CONSTRAINT track_album_unique
        UNIQUE (track_number, album_id)
);

Key decisions:

• album_id is NOT NULL (every track belongs to an album)
• Composite UNIQUE on track_number + album prevents duplicate track numbers within an album
• duration_sec is nullable (metadata is not always complete)

Indexes for Common Queries

-- Speed up lookups by artist (for album listings)
CREATE INDEX idx_albums_artist ON albums (artist_id);

-- Speed up lookups by album (for track listings)
CREATE INDEX idx_tracks_album ON tracks (album_id);

-- Speed up genre-based browsing
CREATE INDEX idx_albums_genre ON albums (genre);

-- Speed up searches by release year
CREATE INDEX idx_albums_year ON albums (release_year);

Foreign key columns and frequently filtered columns are good index candidates.

The Complete Schema

Three tables, proper constraints, indexes on the right columns. The staging table holds 609 rows of messy data. These tables are ready to hold the clean version.

Constraints Summary

Constraint	Purpose	Syntax
PRIMARY KEY	Unique row identifier	CONSTRAINT name PRIMARY KEY (col)
FOREIGN KEY	Referential integrity	col type REFERENCES table (col)
CHECK	Value validation	CONSTRAINT name CHECK (expr)
UNIQUE	No duplicates	CONSTRAINT name UNIQUE (col)
NOT NULL	Requires a value	col type NOT NULL

Next Up! 🚀

What Is Next

Now that you can build tables with proper constraints, the next step is inspecting and migrating data from the staging table into the new structure.

Next time we will:

• Audit the staging data for quality issues (spoiler: there are many)
• Fix inconsistencies with UPDATE
• Migrate data into our normalized tables using INSERT INTO … SELECT
• Wrap it all in transactions for safety

References 📚

Sources

1. DeBarros, A. (2022). Practical SQL: A Beginner’s Guide to Storytelling with Data (2nd ed.). No Starch Press. Chapter 7: Table Design That Works for You.

2. PostgreSQL Documentation. “CREATE TABLE.” https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createtable.html

3. PostgreSQL Documentation. “Indexes.” https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/indexes.html

4. PostgreSQL Documentation. “Constraints.” https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/ddl-constraints.html